Chris Hamnett has challenged this view, offering another interpretation of the social transformation of European cities – and London in particular – that have been confronted with strong demographic and economic growth. The works of Saskia Sassen (1991) have been highly influential and have led to the thesis of polarisation becoming dominant to date, largely drawing from the US experience. These transformations, in terms not just of income levels, but also of qualifications and even ethnic make-up, have stirred debate among academics. But since the 1980s, through globalisation and the spread of neo-liberalism, cities have experienced both deindustrialisation and the development of advanced producer services, massively transforming their social and spatial structures. Major cities across the world have long witnessed social as well as spatial inequalities.
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